Tall Building Criteria and LoadingLeslie E. Robertson, Takeo Naka ASCE Publications, 1980 M01 1 - 900 pages Prepared by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat of ASCE. This report examines the loads to which tall buildings are subjected so that engineers can precisely define the related structural elements that are necessary before translating a client's needs into a safe design. The report explores five different classes of loads?gravity loads and temperature affects, earthquake loads, wind loading and wind effects, fire, and accidental loads?as well as quality control and overall safety considerations.ØSteel buildings, which hold the record for height, tax the designer's ingenuity to provide adequate resistance to lateral loading. Concrete buildings are both more numerous and widely distributed, and for them vertical gravity loads may be the chief problem. Both steel and concrete buildings and lateral and vertical loads are addressed. Other subjects covered include: dead, live, cyclic snow, construction, and combined loads; code requirements; meteorological and environmental factors in design; firefighting provisions; and modeling. Contributions came from more than 800 contributors, all international and professional and heavily representing design and industrial firms. Condensed references follow each chapter, and a glossary is included. |
Contents
412 EXAMPLES OF FIRES IN TALL BUILDINGS | 343 |
2 World Trade Center New York USA | 345 |
4 Andraus Building Sao Paulo Brazil | 348 |
5 One New York Plaza New York USA | 349 |
6 919 Third Avenue Building New York USA | 350 |
7 Hawthorne House Chicago USA | 351 |
8 Rault Center New Orleans USA | 352 |
9 Baptist Towers Housing for the Elderly Atlanta USA | 353 |
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23 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILSTRUCTURE SYSTEMS | 70 |
1 Effects of Soil on Dynamic Response of Buildings | 71 |
2 Evaluation of SoilStructure Interaction Effects | 72 |
3 Methods of Determining the Effect of Soil Conditions on Ground Motion Characteristics | 74 |
4 Conclusion | 81 |
24 ANALYSIS OF DYNAMIC RESPONSE | 83 |
1 Types of Tall Buildings | 88 |
2 Behavior of Tall Buildings | 89 |
4 Components of Motion | 94 |
5 Idealized Inelastic Systems | 98 |
7 The Reserve Energy Technique | 99 |
9 Probabilistic Models | 100 |
25 OBSERVATION OF STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR | 101 |
1 Static Laboratory Studies | 102 |
2 Dynamic Laboratory Studies | 103 |
3 Static Field Studies | 105 |
4 Dynamic Field Studies | 106 |
26 EVALUATION OF EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE | 110 |
1 Performance of Buildings During Earthquakes | 111 |
2 Conclusions | 119 |
1 Seismic Risk | 121 |
3 Damage Probabilities | 124 |
4 Vibration Hazard and Perception | 125 |
5 Present Needs | 128 |
28 CODE REQUIREMENTS | 129 |
1 Base Shear Coefficients and Lateral Seismic Coefficients | 130 |
2 Vertical Forces | 135 |
3 Control of Lateral Deflections and Separation of Buildings | 136 |
6 Allowable Stress | 137 |
29 CONDENSED REFERENCESBIBLIOGRAPHY | 138 |
Wind Loading and Wind Effects | 143 |
31 INTRODUCTION | 145 |
32 DESIGN PROBLEMS AND CRITERIA | 146 |
2 Response to Wind Action | 147 |
3 Progression Towards Collapse of Structural Frame in Wind | 148 |
4 Excessive Deflections and Damage to Architectural Finishes | 151 |
5 Cladding and Glass DesignStack Effect Internal Pressures | 152 |
7 Wind in Pedestrian Areas | 155 |
8 Other Problems | 157 |
33 METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE DESIGN OF TALL BUILDINGS | 159 |
2 Properties of the Mean Wind | 161 |
3 Change of Terrain Roughness | 163 |
5 Climatological Properties of Wind | 167 |
6 Turbulence Structure | 172 |
34 WIND LOADING MECHANISM AND FULLSCALE EXAMPLES | 177 |
2 AlongWind and CrossWind Response | 179 |
3 Torsional Response | 183 |
4 Cladding Pressures on Tall Buildings | 184 |
35 ANALYTICAL APPROACHES TO ESTIMATION OF LOAD AND RESPONSE | 187 |
1 AlongWind | 188 |
2 Analysis of Acceleration Comfort Criteria | 198 |
4 Design Pressure for Glass and Cladding | 200 |
36 WIND TUNNEL MODELING APPROACHES TO DESIGN | 201 |
1 Types of Wind Tunnel Tests | 202 |
3 Natural Wind Models | 204 |
4 Aeroelastic Models | 207 |
5 Pressure Measurements on Models | 211 |
6 Ground Level Wind Distributions | 212 |
7 Dispersal of Gaseous Pollutants | 213 |
8 Wind Tunnel Test Expectations | 216 |
37 INTEGRATION OF RESPONSE AND WIND DATA FOR DESIGN PURPOSES | 217 |
2 Prediction of Numbers of Occurrences | 222 |
3 Prediction of Horizontal Accelerations Affecting Human Comfort | 223 |
38 ENVIRONMENTAL WIND FLOWS AROUND BUILDINGS | 227 |
2 Environmental Wind Speed Criteria | 229 |
3 Prediction of Wind Environment Around a Building | 233 |
4 Guidelines for Avoiding High Induced Wind Speeds at Ground Level | 237 |
39 CODE DESIGN | 239 |
310 CONCLUDING REMARKS | 241 |
311 CONDENSED REFERENCESBIBLIOGRAPHY | 242 |
Fire | 249 |
41 INTRODUCTION | 251 |
42 NATURAL FIRES STANDARD FIRES AND FIRE LOADS | 253 |
2 Fully Developed Building Fires | 255 |
3 Fire Loads | 258 |
2 Steel Structures | 262 |
REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY CONTROL | 271 |
2 Material Characteristics | 272 |
3 Suggestions for Improved Reliability of Protection | 273 |
45 NONSTRUCTURAL PROTECTION | 275 |
2 Smoke Control | 278 |
3 Panic Reaction | 296 |
46 ARCHITECTURAL LAYOUT AND DETAILS | 306 |
3 Construction Details | 308 |
4 Security Considerations | 309 |
2 Communications | 311 |
4 Movement of Occupants to Safe Areas | 314 |
5 Control of Flow of Smoke and Hot Gases | 316 |
6 Concluding Remarks | 317 |
1 Assembly Occupancies | 318 |
3 Health Care Institutional Occupancies | 319 |
4 Residential Occupancies | 320 |
5 Mercantile Occupancies | 321 |
7 Industrial Occupancies | 322 |
9 Buildings under Construction | 323 |
49 PROVISIONS FOR FIRE FIGHTING | 324 |
2 Access to Fire | 325 |
3 Communications | 326 |
6 Standpipes | 327 |
7 Stair Door Unlocking Systems | 328 |
10 Use of Helicopters | 329 |
2 How the System Operates | 332 |
3 Application | 336 |
411 ANALYSIS AND REPAIR OF FIRE DAMAGE | 339 |
2 Steel Structures | 341 |
10 Joelma Building Sao Paulo Brazil | 354 |
11 Sennichi Building Osaka Japan | 355 |
413 PHILOSOPHY OF RISKS AND ACCEPTABLE DAMAGE | 362 |
1 Basic Principles | 363 |
2 Evaluation | 367 |
FIRE DRILL | 379 |
415 CONDENSED REFERENCESBIBLIOGRAPHY | 386 |
Accidental Loading | 391 |
51 INTRODUCTION | 393 |
52 LOADS | 395 |
2 Resulting Loads on Buildings and Structural Elements | 401 |
3 Impact Loads | 403 |
4 Sonic Boom | 405 |
53 FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCE OF LOADS | 406 |
3 External Blast due to Gaseous Explosions | 409 |
5 General | 410 |
2 Damage by HighExplosive Blast | 411 |
3 Damage by Internal Blast due to Gaseous Explosions | 417 |
4 Damage by External Blast due to Gaseous Explosions | 422 |
5 Damage by Impact and Other Accidents | 423 |
1 Responses to Loads Varying in a Known Manner | 424 |
2 Responses to Loads Whose Variation with Time Is Unknown | 428 |
56 POSSIBILITIES OF REDUCING HAZARDS | 430 |
1 HighExplosive Blast | 431 |
3 External Blast due to Gaseous Explosions | 433 |
4 Impact | 434 |
2 Local Loads | 435 |
58 CONDENSED REFERENCESBIBLIOGRAPHY | 437 |
Quality Criteria | 439 |
61 INTRODUCTION | 441 |
2 Contract Documents Criteria and Quality Control | 444 |
3 Quality Control Personnel | 445 |
4 Material Selection | 446 |
6 Field Construction | 447 |
7 Record Keeping | 449 |
3 Tension Test Properties | 454 |
4 Residual Stresses | 457 |
5 CrossSectional Properties | 462 |
7 Lamellar Tearing | 465 |
63 CONCRETE | 467 |
2 Quality of Pumped Concrete | 477 |
3 Factors Influencing Quality of HighStrength Concrete | 479 |
4 Quality of Precast Concrete | 486 |
5 Quality of CastinPlace Concrete | 488 |
6 Quality of Reinforcing Steel Placement | 490 |
7 Formwork | 492 |
9 Project Supervision and Coordination | 497 |
64 QUALITY OF CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION | 498 |
2 Testing of Masonry Units Mortar Grout and Assemblages | 502 |
3 Field Inspection | 507 |
65 ENGINEERED BRICK MASONRY | 508 |
1 Prism Tests Versus Brick Tests | 509 |
2 Compression Testing Large Size Structural Brick | 511 |
3 Absorption | 512 |
4 Mortar Testing | 513 |
5 Flexural Bond Strength | 514 |
6 Quality of Mortar and Grout | 516 |
7 Summary | 518 |
2 Effect of Support Conditions | 521 |
3 Effect of Impact and Other Accidental Loads | 522 |
4 Effect of Surface Conditions | 523 |
5 Probability Concepts | 524 |
6 Engineering Considerations | 525 |
7 Solar Considerations | 529 |
9 Conclusion | 530 |
68 CONDENSED REFERENCESBIBLIOGRAPHY | 531 |
Structural Safety and Probabilistic Methods | 535 |
71 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES | 537 |
2 Preliminary Remarks | 538 |
3 Present Practice | 539 |
4 Information Needed for Improved Safety Analyses and Specifications | 540 |
5 Safety and Serviceability Analyses | 542 |
6 Summary | 543 |
1 One Variable Problems | 544 |
2 Two Variable Problems | 546 |
3 Equations and AlgorithmsUncertainties | 548 |
4 General Uncertainty Analysis | 551 |
73 CODE SPECIFICATION OF SAFETY AND SERVICEABILITY | 552 |
2 Existing Types of Building Codes | 555 |
3 The Additive F 1 Format | 561 |
4 FirstOrder SecondMoment Format | 562 |
5 Examples of Semiprobabilistic and Probabilistic Design | 565 |
6 Examples of Reliability Optimization | 568 |
7 A Strategy | 571 |
8 Special Features of Tall Buildings | 572 |
9 Summary and Conclusions | 574 |
74 THE MODELING OF STRUCTURAL ACTIONS | 575 |
1 Risk | 576 |
2 Socioeconomic Optimization | 580 |
3 Activities | 583 |
5 Conclusion | 585 |
75 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS | 587 |
2 Physical Characteristics of Loadings | 588 |
3 Deterministic Representation of Loadings | 590 |
4 Random Nature of Loadings | 592 |
5 Probabilistic Representation of Loadings | 593 |
6 Simultaneous Occurrence of Different Loads | 595 |
7 Loading Distribution and Probabilities of Damage | 596 |
8 Lack of Information on Loadings | 597 |
9 Some Aspects Introduced by Tall Buildings | 598 |
76 SAFETY ANALYSIS FOR TALL BUILDINGS | 599 |
1 Some Further Reliability Problems | 600 |
2 Models of High Reliability Analysis | 601 |
3 Models of Medium Reliability Analysis | 609 |
77 PRESENT AND FUTURE OF PROBABILISTIC METHODS | 612 |
1 Safety Analysis for Tall Buildings | 613 |
2 Analysis of Uncertainty | 614 |
3 Actions and Their Models | 615 |
4 System Reliability | 621 |
5 Reliability Level Decisions | 627 |
6 Codified Safety Recommendations | 629 |
7 Concluding Remarks | 634 |
78 PROBABILISTIC CONCEPTS AND DESIGN PRACTICE | 635 |
2 Design Parameters and Safety Levels | 636 |
3 Member and System Reliability | 637 |
79 APPENDIX | 638 |
3 Moments of Functions | 639 |
710 CONDENSED REFERENCESBIBLIOGRAPHY | 640 |
Current Questions Problems and Research Needs | 645 |
Nomenclature | 651 |
SYMBOLS | 663 |
ABBREVIATIONS | 670 |
UNITS | 672 |
ReferencesBibliography | 675 |
Contributors | 765 |
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Name Index | 773 |
785 | |